Revision 1
March 19, 1998
by Radiation, Science, and Health, Inc.,
Edited by J. Muckerheide

1.2.6
Natural Radiation and Radioactivity

1.2.6.2
Natural Background: Populations

Figure 6.4

"In 1961, Craig and Seidman suggested there was an inverse correlation between cosmic radiation and leukemia and lymphomas for 163 metropolitan areas from 1949 to 1951 (Figure 6.4). This was acceptable evidence that increased cosmic radiation does not promote cancer mortality. (Craig 1961)

"Three reviews by Brues, Henry, and Oakley concluded that the inverse correlation between background radiation and cancer mortality was general. (Brues 1959; Henry 1961; Oakley 1972)

"In spite of this information, Frigerio and associates at ANL started a new survey with the working hypothesis that all radiation is carcinogenic and persons living with high background radiation should have a higher rate of cancer mortality than those living in low radiation areas. (Frigerio 1973) The extensive data gathered from the contiguous U.S. led to exactly the opposite conclusion!

Figure 6.5

"Whether age-adjusted or not, the data clearly showed an inverse correlation between background radiation and risk of cancer mortality from 56 types of cancer, especially the leukemias. (Frigerio 1973, 1976) While this negative correlation is clear for leukemia, p<0.001 (Figure 6.5), it fits most types of cancer and has been amply confirmed in surveys of counties, states, and regions. (Cohen 1980; Eckhoff 1974; Hickey 1981 a,b; Jacobson 1976; Mason 1974; Sanders 1978; Sauer 1982; Wachsmann 1987, 1989; Webster 1981; Yalow 1981)

"The western states, Colorado, Indiana, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming, had a considerably lower cancer mortality rate when compared with the average of the other U.S.(Kaplan 1949; Wachsmann 1989) Both coastal areas were found to have higher cancer mortality rates than the average.

"Webster compared common cancer mortality rates in the western states with that of the general U.S. population (Table 6.1); hormesis was evident. (Webster 1983) The total cancer mortality of the western states was 84.5% of that for the average of the U.S. Lung cancer mortality of the western states was only 71% of the average for all states. "

"Also, an inverse correlation between altitude and leukemia mortality was noted: ‘...the leukemia rate actually appears to decrease with increasing altitude.’ (Eckhoff 1974) Yalow noted that Colorado residents have one of the lowest cancer death rates while receiving more radiation from cosmic rays and uranium rocks and buildings than is received by workers in the nuclear industry in other parts of the country. (Yalow 1981)

"Sauer et al. had exhausted possibilities for any correlation between the death rates of white males in the eastern coastal areas and about 30 possible factors. (Sauer 1980) Factors examined included air and water composition, factories, economic status, ethnic background, and social status. When background radiation was considered, the inverse correlations between background radiation and total death rates, cancer death rates or cardiovascular death rates were found to be statistically significant, p <0.01. (Sauer 1982) In one area, metropolitan Denver, no differences were found in childhood cancer when it was compared with other geographic areas. (Savitz 1987)

"Bivariant correlation coefficients between radiation and mortality rates were significant for cancer of the lung and respiratory organs, cancer of the buccal cavity and pharynx, cancer of the digestive organs and peritoneum, total cancer and diseases of the heart. (Hickey 1981) Many other correlations were tested; only background radiation, altitude, and increased cosmic radiation were reasonable alternatives. Increased altitude promotes physiologic compensation for the decreased oxygen in the air at high altitudes. This does not affect the increased proportion of cosmogenic oxygen radicals. (Weinberg 1987)"